CLAIMBOUND / SOURCE-PUBLICATION EVIDENCE
Public transit
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1. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 3
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Applications for permission to reproduce or translate all or part of this publication should be made to: Head of Publications Service, OECD/IEA 2, rue André-Pascal, 75775 Paris cedex 16, France or 9, rue de la Fédération, 75739 Paris Cedex 15, France.
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The exact quoted statement occurred in the named official PDF fetched on 2026-09-07, and the complete PDF matched the recorded SHA-256.
What this card does not prove
It does not independently establish the underlying model capability, safety, comparison, or real-world truth. This is a retrospective single-maintainer source-publication audit.
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- IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide
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48d5955ade446845aa50cea973886c0c12c3a16a10c6859873e2edbe8d14a717- Reproduction
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Applications for permission to reproduce or translate all or part of this publication should be made to: Head of Publications Service, OECD/IEA 2, rue André-Pascal, 75775 Paris cedex 16, France or 9, rue de la Fédération, 75739 Paris Cedex 15, France.
2. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 13
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Regardless of whether a bus is “clean” or “dirty”, if it is reasonably full it can displace anywhere from to 50 other motorised vehicles, including often very dirty two-wheelers as well as cars.
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The exact quoted statement occurred in the named official PDF fetched on 2026-09-07, and the complete PDF matched the recorded SHA-256.
What this card does not prove
It does not independently establish the underlying model capability, safety, comparison, or real-world truth. This is a retrospective single-maintainer source-publication audit.
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- IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide
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PDF page 13- Captured
- 2026-09-07
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48d5955ade446845aa50cea973886c0c12c3a16a10c6859873e2edbe8d14a717- Reproduction
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Regardless of whether a bus is “clean” or “dirty”, if it is reasonably full it can displace anywhere from to 50 other motorised vehicles, including often very dirty two-wheelers as well as cars.
3. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 19
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Moreover, nearly all population growth will be in the cities of developing countries, whose population will double to nearly 4 billion by 2030 – about the size of the developing world’s total population in 1990.
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The exact quoted statement occurred in the named official PDF fetched on 2026-09-07, and the complete PDF matched the recorded SHA-256.
What this card does not prove
It does not independently establish the underlying model capability, safety, comparison, or real-world truth. This is a retrospective single-maintainer source-publication audit.
- Primary source
- IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide
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Moreover, nearly all population growth will be in the cities of developing countries, whose population will double to nearly 4 billion by 2030 – about the size of the developing world’s total population in 1990.
4. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 35
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Development of the system was begun in the 1970s, with the aim of giving mass transit priority over small private vehicles.
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The exact quoted statement occurred in the named official PDF fetched on 2026-09-07, and the complete PDF matched the recorded SHA-256.
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It does not independently establish the underlying model capability, safety, comparison, or real-world truth. This is a retrospective single-maintainer source-publication audit.
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- IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide
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PDF page 35- Captured
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48d5955ade446845aa50cea973886c0c12c3a16a10c6859873e2edbe8d14a717- Reproduction
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Development of the system was begun in the 1970s, with the aim of giving mass transit priority over small private vehicles.
5. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 36
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Large double-articulated buses that can carry well over 200 passengers, relatively long distances between stations, and specially-designed “tube” stations for rapid boarding of passengers allow the system to deliver more “throughput” (passengers per hour past a given point) than many rail systems are able to achieve (Mereilles, 2000)5.
What this card proves
The exact quoted statement occurred in the named official PDF fetched on 2026-09-07, and the complete PDF matched the recorded SHA-256.
What this card does not prove
It does not independently establish the underlying model capability, safety, comparison, or real-world truth. This is a retrospective single-maintainer source-publication audit.
- Primary source
- IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide
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PDF page 36- Captured
- 2026-09-07
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48d5955ade446845aa50cea973886c0c12c3a16a10c6859873e2edbe8d14a717- Reproduction
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Large double-articulated buses that can carry well over 200 passengers, relatively long distances between stations, and specially-designed “tube” stations for rapid boarding of passengers allow the system to deliver more “throughput” (passengers per hour past a given point) than many rail systems are able to achieve (Mereilles, 2000)5.
6. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 36
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Throughout this system, fifty-eight kilometres of express bus lanes are complemented by 270 kilometres of feeder routes and 185 kilometres of interdistrict routes, serving about 65% of the metropolitan area.
What this card proves
The exact quoted statement occurred in the named official PDF fetched on 2026-09-07, and the complete PDF matched the recorded SHA-256.
What this card does not prove
It does not independently establish the underlying model capability, safety, comparison, or real-world truth. This is a retrospective single-maintainer source-publication audit.
- Primary source
- IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide
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PDF page 36- Captured
- 2026-09-07
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48d5955ade446845aa50cea973886c0c12c3a16a10c6859873e2edbe8d14a717- Reproduction
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Throughout this system, fifty-eight kilometres of express bus lanes are complemented by 270 kilometres of feeder routes and 185 kilometres of interdistrict routes, serving about 65% of the metropolitan area.
7. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 38
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Operations started in 2000 and only three lines are in place so far, but they already carry more travellers than entire mass transit systems in many other cities around the world: around 700,000 daily trips and up to 42,000 passengers per hour during peak times, with average bus speeds of 26 kilometres per hour.
What this card proves
The exact quoted statement occurred in the named official PDF fetched on 2026-09-07, and the complete PDF matched the recorded SHA-256.
What this card does not prove
It does not independently establish the underlying model capability, safety, comparison, or real-world truth. This is a retrospective single-maintainer source-publication audit.
- Primary source
- IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide
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PDF page 38- Captured
- 2026-09-07
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48d5955ade446845aa50cea973886c0c12c3a16a10c6859873e2edbe8d14a717- Reproduction
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Operations started in 2000 and only three lines are in place so far, but they already carry more travellers than entire mass transit systems in many other cities around the world: around 700,000 daily trips and up to 42,000 passengers per hour during peak times, with average bus speeds of 26 kilometres per hour.
8. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 38
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With a flat fare of 900 Colombian pesos (about $0.38), revenues are sufficient for the participating private bus companies to be profitable.
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The exact quoted statement occurred in the named official PDF fetched on 2026-09-07, and the complete PDF matched the recorded SHA-256.
What this card does not prove
It does not independently establish the underlying model capability, safety, comparison, or real-world truth. This is a retrospective single-maintainer source-publication audit.
- Primary source
- IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide
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PDF page 38- Captured
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48d5955ade446845aa50cea973886c0c12c3a16a10c6859873e2edbe8d14a717- Reproduction
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With a flat fare of 900 Colombian pesos (about $0.38), revenues are sufficient for the participating private bus companies to be profitable.
9. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 41
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While there are no dedicated lanes, this approach has raised bus speeds an average of 15%, increased ridership significantly and lowered fuel use slightly (LA, 2001).
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The exact quoted statement occurred in the named official PDF fetched on 2026-09-07, and the complete PDF matched the recorded SHA-256.
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It does not independently establish the underlying model capability, safety, comparison, or real-world truth. This is a retrospective single-maintainer source-publication audit.
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- IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide
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PDF page 41- Captured
- 2026-09-07
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48d5955ade446845aa50cea973886c0c12c3a16a10c6859873e2edbe8d14a717- Reproduction
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While there are no dedicated lanes, this approach has raised bus speeds an average of 15%, increased ridership significantly and lowered fuel use slightly (LA, 2001).
10. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 42
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While electric trams produce no (direct) air pollution, and are generally popular, tram systems are also typically much more expensive to develop than bus systems, and more difficult to modify once installed (Henscher, 1999).
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The exact quoted statement occurred in the named official PDF fetched on 2026-09-07, and the complete PDF matched the recorded SHA-256.
What this card does not prove
It does not independently establish the underlying model capability, safety, comparison, or real-world truth. This is a retrospective single-maintainer source-publication audit.
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- IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide
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PDF page 42- Captured
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48d5955ade446845aa50cea973886c0c12c3a16a10c6859873e2edbe8d14a717- Reproduction
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While electric trams produce no (direct) air pollution, and are generally popular, tram systems are also typically much more expensive to develop than bus systems, and more difficult to modify once installed (Henscher, 1999).
11. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 50
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The effects of these different mode-switching assumptions on the outcome, by bus type, are shown in Figures 2.4a and 2.4b.
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The exact quoted statement occurred in the named official PDF fetched on 2026-09-07, and the complete PDF matched the recorded SHA-256.
What this card does not prove
It does not independently establish the underlying model capability, safety, comparison, or real-world truth. This is a retrospective single-maintainer source-publication audit.
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- IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide
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PDF page 50- Captured
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48d5955ade446845aa50cea973886c0c12c3a16a10c6859873e2edbe8d14a717- Reproduction
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The effects of these different mode-switching assumptions on the outcome, by bus type, are shown in Figures 2.4a and 2.4b.
12. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 50
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In fact the only real net benefit it provides is a reduction in the use of road space, formerly required by small buses and paratransit vehicles to carry the 30 passengers.
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The exact quoted statement occurred in the named official PDF fetched on 2026-09-07, and the complete PDF matched the recorded SHA-256.
What this card does not prove
It does not independently establish the underlying model capability, safety, comparison, or real-world truth. This is a retrospective single-maintainer source-publication audit.
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PDF page 50- Captured
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48d5955ade446845aa50cea973886c0c12c3a16a10c6859873e2edbe8d14a717- Reproduction
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In fact the only real net benefit it provides is a reduction in the use of road space, formerly required by small buses and paratransit vehicles to carry the 30 passengers.
13. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 53
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In some cases, only buses running behind schedule are provided with advance greens, such as in Vancouver, Canada (FTA, 2002b).
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The exact quoted statement occurred in the named official PDF fetched on 2026-09-07, and the complete PDF matched the recorded SHA-256.
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In some cases, only buses running behind schedule are provided with advance greens, such as in Vancouver, Canada (FTA, 2002b).
14. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 54
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While the costs to develop a bus information and control system can be quite variable, depending on the size of the system and components included, a fairly large system with many of the key components may cost under $5000 per bus.
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The exact quoted statement occurred in the named official PDF fetched on 2026-09-07, and the complete PDF matched the recorded SHA-256.
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It does not independently establish the underlying model capability, safety, comparison, or real-world truth. This is a retrospective single-maintainer source-publication audit.
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- IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide
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PDF page 54- Captured
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48d5955ade446845aa50cea973886c0c12c3a16a10c6859873e2edbe8d14a717- Reproduction
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While the costs to develop a bus information and control system can be quite variable, depending on the size of the system and components included, a fairly large system with many of the key components may cost under $5000 per bus.
15. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 56
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In poorer countries the cost may need to drop still further in order to be cost-effective for bus systems, although smart cards are already in use in Bogota, with a per-capita annual income of about $2,000.
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The exact quoted statement occurred in the named official PDF fetched on 2026-09-07, and the complete PDF matched the recorded SHA-256.
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It does not independently establish the underlying model capability, safety, comparison, or real-world truth. This is a retrospective single-maintainer source-publication audit.
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PDF page 56- Captured
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In poorer countries the cost may need to drop still further in order to be cost-effective for bus systems, although smart cards are already in use in Bogota, with a per-capita annual income of about $2,000.
16. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 58
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In its recent transport review, the World Bank (2001) provides a spectrum of possible regulatory arrangements, ranging from pure competition to complete government control and operation of the system.
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The exact quoted statement occurred in the named official PDF fetched on 2026-09-07, and the complete PDF matched the recorded SHA-256.
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PDF page 58- Captured
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48d5955ade446845aa50cea973886c0c12c3a16a10c6859873e2edbe8d14a717- Reproduction
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In its recent transport review, the World Bank (2001) provides a spectrum of possible regulatory arrangements, ranging from pure competition to complete government control and operation of the system.
17. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 59
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Meakin (2001) identifies four such conditions: a supportive government policy, clear transport objectives, a legal framework enabling fair competition, and institutional capacity to promote, direct, and regulate competition.
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The exact quoted statement occurred in the named official PDF fetched on 2026-09-07, and the complete PDF matched the recorded SHA-256.
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PDF page 59- Captured
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Meakin (2001) identifies four such conditions: a supportive government policy, clear transport objectives, a legal framework enabling fair competition, and institutional capacity to promote, direct, and regulate competition.
18. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 61
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With very low bus fares prevalent in South Asia and elsewhere in the developing world, bus speeds below 10 kilometres per hour are simply too low to recover the costs of new, clean buses that provide comfortable, reliable service.
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The exact quoted statement occurred in the named official PDF fetched on 2026-09-07, and the complete PDF matched the recorded SHA-256.
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PDF page 61- Captured
- 2026-09-07
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48d5955ade446845aa50cea973886c0c12c3a16a10c6859873e2edbe8d14a717- Reproduction
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With very low bus fares prevalent in South Asia and elsewhere in the developing world, bus speeds below 10 kilometres per hour are simply too low to recover the costs of new, clean buses that provide comfortable, reliable service.
19. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 66
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For example, a 1999 report by the Manufacturer of Emission Controls Association (MECA) compared emissions from a 1998 diesel bus engine using fuels with different sulphur levels and various after-treatment systems.
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The exact quoted statement occurred in the named official PDF fetched on 2026-09-07, and the complete PDF matched the recorded SHA-256.
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It does not independently establish the underlying model capability, safety, comparison, or real-world truth. This is a retrospective single-maintainer source-publication audit.
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PDF page 66- Captured
- 2026-09-07
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48d5955ade446845aa50cea973886c0c12c3a16a10c6859873e2edbe8d14a717- Reproduction
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For example, a 1999 report by the Manufacturer of Emission Controls Association (MECA) compared emissions from a 1998 diesel bus engine using fuels with different sulphur levels and various after-treatment systems.
20. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 66
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When a catalyst based diesel particulate filter (DPF) was used in combination with the lower-sulphur fuel, 72% reductions in PM were achieved.
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The exact quoted statement occurred in the named official PDF fetched on 2026-09-07, and the complete PDF matched the recorded SHA-256.
What this card does not prove
It does not independently establish the underlying model capability, safety, comparison, or real-world truth. This is a retrospective single-maintainer source-publication audit.
- Primary source
- IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide
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PDF page 66- Captured
- 2026-09-07
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48d5955ade446845aa50cea973886c0c12c3a16a10c6859873e2edbe8d14a717- Reproduction
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When a catalyst based diesel particulate filter (DPF) was used in combination with the lower-sulphur fuel, 72% reductions in PM were achieved.
21. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 67
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On the other hand, in some European countries DPFs have been operating with ULSD on vehicles more than six years old with no problem (US EPA, 2000).
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The exact quoted statement occurred in the named official PDF fetched on 2026-09-07, and the complete PDF matched the recorded SHA-256.
What this card does not prove
It does not independently establish the underlying model capability, safety, comparison, or real-world truth. This is a retrospective single-maintainer source-publication audit.
- Primary source
- IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide
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PDF page 67- Captured
- 2026-09-07
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On the other hand, in some European countries DPFs have been operating with ULSD on vehicles more than six years old with no problem (US EPA, 2000).
22. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 67
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In North America, New York City Transit (NYCT) recently completed testing and has switched to ULSD for its entire diesel bus fleet.By the end of 2003 NYCT plans to retrofit catalytic filter systems on all diesel buses11.
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PDF page 67- Captured
- 2026-09-07
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In North America, New York City Transit (NYCT) recently completed testing and has switched to ULSD for its entire diesel bus fleet.By the end of 2003 NYCT plans to retrofit catalytic filter systems on all diesel buses11.
23. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 69
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The project also found DPFs to be a particularly cost-effective way to reduce emissions, since the systems cost about $5,000 per bus with little other infrastructure requirements.
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PDF page 69- Captured
- 2026-09-07
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The project also found DPFs to be a particularly cost-effective way to reduce emissions, since the systems cost about $5,000 per bus with little other infrastructure requirements.
24. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 70
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Advanced systems can do even better through more careful control and variation of the gas recovery rate under different driving conditions (Detroit Diesel, 2000).
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PDF page 70- Captured
- 2026-09-07
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Advanced systems can do even better through more careful control and variation of the gas recovery rate under different driving conditions (Detroit Diesel, 2000).
25. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 71
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The EPA believes that additional improvements will allow vehicles with adsorber systems to meet the 2007 US emission standards for heavy-duty diesel engines and eliminate the current fuel economy penalty.
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PDF page 71- Captured
- 2026-09-07
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The EPA believes that additional improvements will allow vehicles with adsorber systems to meet the 2007 US emission standards for heavy-duty diesel engines and eliminate the current fuel economy penalty.
26. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 71
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Availability and Cost of Ultra-Low-Sulphur Diesel Fuel Although ultra-low-sulphur (<50ppm) diesel fuel is a key to reducing diesel PM emissions, its availability is currently limited to small markets, primarily in Europe and to a lesser extent in the United States.
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PDF page 71- Captured
- 2026-09-07
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Availability and Cost of Ultra-Low-Sulphur Diesel Fuel Although ultra-low-sulphur (<50ppm) diesel fuel is a key to reducing diesel PM emissions, its availability is currently limited to small markets, primarily in Europe and to a lesser extent in the United States.
27. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 72
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In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency has proposed a rule requiring refiners and importers to produce 80% of highway diesel containing a maximum of 15 ppm starting 1 June, 2006.
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PDF page 72- Captured
- 2026-09-07
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In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency has proposed a rule requiring refiners and importers to produce 80% of highway diesel containing a maximum of 15 ppm starting 1 June, 2006.
28. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 72
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In India, for example, recent legislation has only sought to reduce the sulphur content of diesel fuel to a maximum of 500 ppm.
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PDF page 72- Captured
- 2026-09-07
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In India, for example, recent legislation has only sought to reduce the sulphur content of diesel fuel to a maximum of 500 ppm.
29. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 73
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Hong Kong’s Retrofit Program In Hong Kong, where there are 12,000 diesel buses, half of which are pre-Euro-standard, the government has undertaken a programme beginning in 2000 to test particulate filters and diesel oxidation cata lysts.
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PDF page 73- Captured
- 2026-09-07
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Hong Kong’s Retrofit Program In Hong Kong, where there are 12,000 diesel buses, half of which are pre-Euro-standard, the government has undertaken a programme beginning in 2000 to test particulate filters and diesel oxidation cata lysts.
30. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 73
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In its 1999 Policy Statement, the government decided that the installation of catalytic converters and filters was the most practical way to reduce emissions from these old diesel vehicles (Hong Kong, 1999).
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PDF page 73- Captured
- 2026-09-07
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In its 1999 Policy Statement, the government decided that the installation of catalytic converters and filters was the most practical way to reduce emissions from these old diesel vehicles (Hong Kong, 1999).
31. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 74
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Retrofitting of diesel oxidation catalysts (DOCs) on off-road vehicles has been taking place for over 20 years, particularly in the underground mining industry, where over 250,000 engines have been retrofitted.
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PDF page 74- Captured
- 2026-09-07
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Retrofitting of diesel oxidation catalysts (DOCs) on off-road vehicles has been taking place for over 20 years, particularly in the underground mining industry, where over 250,000 engines have been retrofitted.
32. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 74
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Since many oxidation catalysts can be used with diesel fuel with up to 1,000 ppm sulphur, this can be one of the most widely applicable retrofit options for the developing world.
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PDF page 74- Captured
- 2026-09-07
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Since many oxidation catalysts can be used with diesel fuel with up to 1,000 ppm sulphur, this can be one of the most widely applicable retrofit options for the developing world.
33. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 76
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This may cost between Rs 50,000 and Rs 100,000 ($1,000 to $2,000), depending on whether turbo chargers are already standard equipment (Delhi, 2001).
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PDF page 76- Captured
- 2026-09-07
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This may cost between Rs 50,000 and Rs 100,000 ($1,000 to $2,000), depending on whether turbo chargers are already standard equipment (Delhi, 2001).
34. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 77
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Technology Status Several companies, such as TotalFinaElf, A-55 and Lubrizol Corp., market products that allow oil/water emulsions to be stable enough for use in diesel engines.These products allow engines to tolerate fuel blends with 5% to 30% water, although 10% water is the most common.
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PDF page 77- Captured
- 2026-09-07
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Technology Status Several companies, such as TotalFinaElf, A-55 and Lubrizol Corp., market products that allow oil/water emulsions to be stable enough for use in diesel engines.These products allow engines to tolerate fuel blends with 5% to 30% water, although 10% water is the most common.
35. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 79
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The impact of the power loss appears to depend particularly upon the engine/vehicle duty cycle and could range from zero to 15% for 20% water-based fuels.
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PDF page 79- Captured
- 2026-09-07
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The impact of the power loss appears to depend particularly upon the engine/vehicle duty cycle and could range from zero to 15% for 20% water-based fuels.
36. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 79
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Including taxes, if the water portion of the new diesel/water/emulsion is taxed at the same rate as pure diesel, a 10% water emulsion would be 5% to 15% more expensive than diesel.
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PDF page 79- Captured
- 2026-09-07
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Including taxes, if the water portion of the new diesel/water/emulsion is taxed at the same rate as pure diesel, a 10% water emulsion would be 5% to 15% more expensive than diesel.
37. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 80
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After the older buses are retired, it intends to replace them with diesel buses using ULSD and catalysed particulate filters (RATP, 2001), in order to reach even lower emissions levels and meet Euro-III standards.
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PDF page 80- Captured
- 2026-09-07
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After the older buses are retired, it intends to replace them with diesel buses using ULSD and catalysed particulate filters (RATP, 2001), in order to reach even lower emissions levels and meet Euro-III standards.
38. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 80
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The Italian Ministry of Finance has also designated a 36% lower tax rate for emulsion fuels than for conventional diesel fuel.
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PDF page 80- Captured
- 2026-09-07
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The Italian Ministry of Finance has also designated a 36% lower tax rate for emulsion fuels than for conventional diesel fuel.
39. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 81
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On a transient test cycle, fuel economy and power with neat biodiesel are about 10% lower than with conventional diesel fuel; with B20 the loss is about two percent.
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PDF page 81- Captured
- 2026-09-07
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On a transient test cycle, fuel economy and power with neat biodiesel are about 10% lower than with conventional diesel fuel; with B20 the loss is about two percent.
40. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 81
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Biodiesel can be stored in the same tanks as petroleum-based diesel, but it has a shorter shelf life, which makes it less suitable for use in emergency generators or engines that operate infrequently (CARB, 2000).
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The exact quoted statement occurred in the named official PDF fetched on 2026-09-07, and the complete PDF matched the recorded SHA-256.
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PDF page 81- Captured
- 2026-09-07
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Biodiesel can be stored in the same tanks as petroleum-based diesel, but it has a shorter shelf life, which makes it less suitable for use in emergency generators or engines that operate infrequently (CARB, 2000).
41. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 84
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Most of the studies compared vehicles made in the mid-to-late 1990s, and none of the tested diesel vehicles used ULSD or were equipped with a particulate filter.
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PDF page 84- Captured
- 2026-09-07
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Most of the studies compared vehicles made in the mid-to-late 1990s, and none of the tested diesel vehicles used ULSD or were equipped with a particulate filter.
42. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 84
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CNG buses were found to emit anywhere from 40% to 86% less particulate matter and 38% to 58% less nitrogen oxide than diesel buses.
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CNG buses were found to emit anywhere from 40% to 86% less particulate matter and 38% to 58% less nitrogen oxide than diesel buses.
43. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 86
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Some studies also indicate that natural-gas vehicles may emit a greater number of ultra-fine particles than “clean” diesel vehicles, and that these smaller particles may be the most significant threat to human health (Holménet al, 2001; Lloyd and Cackette, 2001).But this is still an area of intensive research.
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Some studies also indicate that natural-gas vehicles may emit a greater number of ultra-fine particles than “clean” diesel vehicles, and that these smaller particles may be the most significant threat to human health (Holménet al, 2001; Lloyd and Cackette, 2001).But this is still an area of intensive research.
44. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 86
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However, when upstream emissions of various greenhouse gases, particularly methane, are included, some studies estimate that CNG buses produce significantly more total GHG emissions than diesel buses (UK, 2000).
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However, when upstream emissions of various greenhouse gases, particularly methane, are included, some studies estimate that CNG buses produce significantly more total GHG emissions than diesel buses (UK, 2000).
45. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 90
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In OECD countries, the purchase price of a CNG bus is about $25,000 to $50,000 more than a diesel bus, with this cost difference declining in recent years and expected to decline further as commercial production expands.
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In OECD countries, the purchase price of a CNG bus is about $25,000 to $50,000 more than a diesel bus, with this cost difference declining in recent years and expected to decline further as commercial production expands.
46. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 90
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CNG infrastructure costs vary greatly – transit agencies report refuelling station costs of anywhere from $1 million to $5million and bus depot modification costs from $320,000 to $15 million.
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CNG infrastructure costs vary greatly – transit agencies report refuelling station costs of anywhere from $1 million to $5million and bus depot modification costs from $320,000 to $15 million.
47. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 91
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The percentage of methane in natural gas must be high and fairly constant for CNG buses to run reliably (Volvo, 1998).Finally, CNG must be handled with caution.
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The percentage of methane in natural gas must be high and fairly constant for CNG buses to run reliably (Volvo, 1998).Finally, CNG must be handled with caution.
48. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 93
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Recent Programmes Vienna Possibly the best example of the viability of LPG as a fuel for urban transit buses comes from Vienna, where the Vienna Transport Board has been using LPG in its bus fleet for 38 years.
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Recent Programmes Vienna Possibly the best example of the viability of LPG as a fuel for urban transit buses comes from Vienna, where the Vienna Transport Board has been using LPG in its bus fleet for 38 years.
49. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 93
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Despite the fuel cost savings, Vienna notes that LPG bus purchase costs are 10% higher than the diesel versions and maintenance costs are 5% to 10% higher, in part due to frequent inspections of the fuel system and the catalytic converters.
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Despite the fuel cost savings, Vienna notes that LPG bus purchase costs are 10% higher than the diesel versions and maintenance costs are 5% to 10% higher, in part due to frequent inspections of the fuel system and the catalytic converters.
50. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 94
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APSRTC estimates that it would cost around Rs 2 lakh (about $4,000) to convert a single bus to run on LPG, while it would cost Rs 4 lakh ($8,000) for the same bus to run on CNG.
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APSRTC estimates that it would cost around Rs 2 lakh (about $4,000) to convert a single bus to run on LPG, while it would cost Rs 4 lakh ($8,000) for the same bus to run on CNG.
51. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 96
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Since then, research has focussed on making DME-tolerant fuel systems, due to significant durability problems arising in part from DME’s lack of lubricity – a quality that diesel fuel possesses and that diesel fuel systems have been designed to rely on (Penn State, 2001).
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Since then, research has focussed on making DME-tolerant fuel systems, due to significant durability problems arising in part from DME’s lack of lubricity – a quality that diesel fuel possesses and that diesel fuel systems have been designed to rely on (Penn State, 2001).
52. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 96
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Such limitations require that significant modifications be made to conventional fuel-injection equipment to accommodate the use of DME in a diesel engine (US DOE, 2001).
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Such limitations require that significant modifications be made to conventional fuel-injection equipment to accommodate the use of DME in a diesel engine (US DOE, 2001).
53. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 97
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Manufacturing Process The total world production capacity for DME currently is about 400 metric tonnes per day.It is made via fixed-bed catalytic dehydration of methanol.Although methanol dehydration is a relatively simple process, DME produced by this method will always be more costly than the methanol from which it is made.However, a new manufacturing technology is now available to reduce costs.
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Manufacturing Process The total world production capacity for DME currently is about 400 metric tonnes per day.It is made via fixed-bed catalytic dehydration of methanol.Although methanol dehydration is a relatively simple process, DME produced by this method will always be more costly than the methanol from which it is made.However, a new manufacturing technology is now available to reduce costs.
54. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 97
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Based on their extensive experience in syngas production, methanol synthesis and DME-related pilot plant work, HT and BP Amoco have identified technology for the construction of greenfield DME plants with capacities of eight to ten thousand tons per day and consuming about 250-350 MMscfd natural gas (BP Amoco, 2001).
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Based on their extensive experience in syngas production, methanol synthesis and DME-related pilot plant work, HT and BP Amoco have identified technology for the construction of greenfield DME plants with capacities of eight to ten thousand tons per day and consuming about 250-350 MMscfd natural gas (BP Amoco, 2001).
55. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 99
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The project recommended that some additional safety measures be used for handling DME fuel in a compression ignition system (Canada, 2001), and developed preliminary safety guidelines.
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The project recommended that some additional safety measures be used for handling DME fuel in a compression ignition system (Canada, 2001), and developed preliminary safety guidelines.
56. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 99
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Conversion of a commercial diesel engine to operation on DME is not trivial, and DME presents a number of technical challenges due to its physical properties that complicate the conversion process (Penn State, 2001).
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Conversion of a commercial diesel engine to operation on DME is not trivial, and DME presents a number of technical challenges due to its physical properties that complicate the conversion process (Penn State, 2001).
57. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 100
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After establishing the commercial viability of the project, the partners will form a joint venture company to begin supplying DME to Indian power plants in 2004.
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After establishing the commercial viability of the project, the partners will form a joint venture company to begin supplying DME to Indian power plants in 2004.
58. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 102
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A set of detailed emissions tests was recently conducted by the Northeast Advanced Vehicle Consortium (NAVC, 2000).Tests were conducted during 1999 in New York and Boston, using a transportable heavy-duty vehicle chassis dynamometer.
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A set of detailed emissions tests was recently conducted by the Northeast Advanced Vehicle Consortium (NAVC, 2000).Tests were conducted during 1999 in New York and Boston, using a transportable heavy-duty vehicle chassis dynamometer.
59. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 104
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While current lead acid batteries are relatively cheap and reliable, considerable improvements in energy density, power density, life span and cost are still sought (FTA, 2000).
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While current lead acid batteries are relatively cheap and reliable, considerable improvements in energy density, power density, life span and cost are still sought (FTA, 2000).
60. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 104
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Some companies are also investigating “mild-hybrid” concepts that are less efficient but perform better than standard hybrids in some environments.With an integrated starter/alternator and regenerative braking, a fuel economy improvement of 7% to 8% can be achieved with a relatively small battery pack (15-20kW).
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Some companies are also investigating “mild-hybrid” concepts that are less efficient but perform better than standard hybrids in some environments.With an integrated starter/alternator and regenerative braking, a fuel economy improvement of 7% to 8% can be achieved with a relatively small battery pack (15-20kW).
61. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 105
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Each agency operates at least five hybrid buses in revenue service and has accumulated more than 15,000 kilometres with these buses.
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Each agency operates at least five hybrid buses in revenue service and has accumulated more than 15,000 kilometres with these buses.
62. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 106
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In 1995, Five Seasons Transportation in Cedar Rapids, Iowa, was one of the first transit agencies in the country to begin operating electric-drive systems in regular bus service.
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The exact quoted statement occurred in the named official PDF fetched on 2026-09-07, and the complete PDF matched the recorded SHA-256.
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It does not independently establish the underlying model capability, safety, comparison, or real-world truth. This is a retrospective single-maintainer source-publication audit.
- Primary source
- IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide
- Section locator
PDF page 106- Captured
- 2026-09-07
- Source SHA-256
48d5955ade446845aa50cea973886c0c12c3a16a10c6859873e2edbe8d14a717- Reproduction
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python scripts/verify_primary_public_claim_group.py artifacts/cb7k_dom073_t07_primary_claims.json --source-file <local-raw-pdf>Exact source quote
In 1995, Five Seasons Transportation in Cedar Rapids, Iowa, was one of the first transit agencies in the country to begin operating electric-drive systems in regular bus service.
63. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 106
Narrow public claim
Europe and Latin America The EU-sponsored Sagittaire project (EU, 2000) is running demonstrations of hybrid buses in eleven cities: Luxembourg (GD Luxembourg), Besançon (France), Alicante (Spain), Sintra (Portugal), Stavanger (Norway), Savona, Belluno and Trento (Italy), Athens (Greece), and Bruges and Leuven (represented by the regional public transportation company “De Lijn”), Belgium.
What this card proves
The exact quoted statement occurred in the named official PDF fetched on 2026-09-07, and the complete PDF matched the recorded SHA-256.
What this card does not prove
It does not independently establish the underlying model capability, safety, comparison, or real-world truth. This is a retrospective single-maintainer source-publication audit.
- Primary source
- IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide
- Section locator
PDF page 106- Captured
- 2026-09-07
- Source SHA-256
48d5955ade446845aa50cea973886c0c12c3a16a10c6859873e2edbe8d14a717- Reproduction
- Maintainer run only; no independent operator rerun is registered.
Repeat this exact check locally
Download the PDF to a local file, then run the committed verifier. A changed PDF is reported as drift rather than silently accepted.
python scripts/verify_primary_public_claim_group.py artifacts/cb7k_dom073_t07_primary_claims.json --source-file <local-raw-pdf>Exact source quote
Europe and Latin America The EU-sponsored Sagittaire project (EU, 2000) is running demonstrations of hybrid buses in eleven cities: Luxembourg (GD Luxembourg), Besançon (France), Alicante (Spain), Sintra (Portugal), Stavanger (Norway), Savona, Belluno and Trento (Italy), Athens (Greece), and Bruges and Leuven (represented by the regional public transportation company “De Lijn”), Belgium.
64. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 107
Narrow public claim
The single largest cost at present is capital acquisition (FTA, 2000).The price of a hybrid transit bus in the US has come down considerably in the last several years, from nearly one million dollars to under $400,000 today.
What this card proves
The exact quoted statement occurred in the named official PDF fetched on 2026-09-07, and the complete PDF matched the recorded SHA-256.
What this card does not prove
It does not independently establish the underlying model capability, safety, comparison, or real-world truth. This is a retrospective single-maintainer source-publication audit.
- Primary source
- IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide
- Section locator
PDF page 107- Captured
- 2026-09-07
- Source SHA-256
48d5955ade446845aa50cea973886c0c12c3a16a10c6859873e2edbe8d14a717- Reproduction
- Maintainer run only; no independent operator rerun is registered.
Repeat this exact check locally
Download the PDF to a local file, then run the committed verifier. A changed PDF is reported as drift rather than silently accepted.
python scripts/verify_primary_public_claim_group.py artifacts/cb7k_dom073_t07_primary_claims.json --source-file <local-raw-pdf>Exact source quote
The single largest cost at present is capital acquisition (FTA, 2000).The price of a hybrid transit bus in the US has come down considerably in the last several years, from nearly one million dollars to under $400,000 today.
65. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 107
Narrow public claim
For a bus that uses close to one million litres of fuel over its service life, at a cost of $0.50 per litre, the fuel savings from hybrids can be more than one hundred thousand dollars per bus.
What this card proves
The exact quoted statement occurred in the named official PDF fetched on 2026-09-07, and the complete PDF matched the recorded SHA-256.
What this card does not prove
It does not independently establish the underlying model capability, safety, comparison, or real-world truth. This is a retrospective single-maintainer source-publication audit.
- Primary source
- IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide
- Section locator
PDF page 107- Captured
- 2026-09-07
- Source SHA-256
48d5955ade446845aa50cea973886c0c12c3a16a10c6859873e2edbe8d14a717- Reproduction
- Maintainer run only; no independent operator rerun is registered.
Repeat this exact check locally
Download the PDF to a local file, then run the committed verifier. A changed PDF is reported as drift rather than silently accepted.
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For a bus that uses close to one million litres of fuel over its service life, at a cost of $0.50 per litre, the fuel savings from hybrids can be more than one hundred thousand dollars per bus.
66. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 109
Narrow public claim
Moreover, industry has no clear development path and seems to be moving in several different directions (DeCicco, 2001).
What this card proves
The exact quoted statement occurred in the named official PDF fetched on 2026-09-07, and the complete PDF matched the recorded SHA-256.
What this card does not prove
It does not independently establish the underlying model capability, safety, comparison, or real-world truth. This is a retrospective single-maintainer source-publication audit.
- Primary source
- IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide
- Section locator
PDF page 109- Captured
- 2026-09-07
- Source SHA-256
48d5955ade446845aa50cea973886c0c12c3a16a10c6859873e2edbe8d14a717- Reproduction
- Maintainer run only; no independent operator rerun is registered.
Repeat this exact check locally
Download the PDF to a local file, then run the committed verifier. A changed PDF is reported as drift rather than silently accepted.
python scripts/verify_primary_public_claim_group.py artifacts/cb7k_dom073_t07_primary_claims.json --source-file <local-raw-pdf>Exact source quote
Moreover, industry has no clear development path and seems to be moving in several different directions (DeCicco, 2001).
67. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 109
Narrow public claim
Fuel-cell buses have already been tested by several transit agencies, and additional testing programmes planned for different cities around the world appear likely to place about 100 fuel cell buses into operation by 2003.
What this card proves
The exact quoted statement occurred in the named official PDF fetched on 2026-09-07, and the complete PDF matched the recorded SHA-256.
What this card does not prove
It does not independently establish the underlying model capability, safety, comparison, or real-world truth. This is a retrospective single-maintainer source-publication audit.
- Primary source
- IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide
- Section locator
PDF page 109- Captured
- 2026-09-07
- Source SHA-256
48d5955ade446845aa50cea973886c0c12c3a16a10c6859873e2edbe8d14a717- Reproduction
- Maintainer run only; no independent operator rerun is registered.
Repeat this exact check locally
Download the PDF to a local file, then run the committed verifier. A changed PDF is reported as drift rather than silently accepted.
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Fuel-cell buses have already been tested by several transit agencies, and additional testing programmes planned for different cities around the world appear likely to place about 100 fuel cell buses into operation by 2003.
68. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 110
Narrow public claim
Some companies, such as GM (working with ExxonMobil), believe gasoline makes more sense for light-duty vehicles until the commercial challenges of a hydrogen economy can be overcome (GM, 2000). ■ Methanolreforming for fuel-cell use is simpler and inherently cleaner than reforming gasoline, although it has a lower energy density.
What this card proves
The exact quoted statement occurred in the named official PDF fetched on 2026-09-07, and the complete PDF matched the recorded SHA-256.
What this card does not prove
It does not independently establish the underlying model capability, safety, comparison, or real-world truth. This is a retrospective single-maintainer source-publication audit.
- Primary source
- IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide
- Section locator
PDF page 110- Captured
- 2026-09-07
- Source SHA-256
48d5955ade446845aa50cea973886c0c12c3a16a10c6859873e2edbe8d14a717- Reproduction
- Maintainer run only; no independent operator rerun is registered.
Repeat this exact check locally
Download the PDF to a local file, then run the committed verifier. A changed PDF is reported as drift rather than silently accepted.
python scripts/verify_primary_public_claim_group.py artifacts/cb7k_dom073_t07_primary_claims.json --source-file <local-raw-pdf>Exact source quote
Some companies, such as GM (working with ExxonMobil), believe gasoline makes more sense for light-duty vehicles until the commercial challenges of a hydrogen economy can be overcome (GM, 2000). ■ Methanolreforming for fuel-cell use is simpler and inherently cleaner than reforming gasoline, although it has a lower energy density.
69. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 112
Narrow public claim
If hydrogen is harvested from natural gas, the indirect emissions associated with fuel-cell buses have been estimated to be roughly half those of diesel buses (UCS, 2000).
What this card proves
The exact quoted statement occurred in the named official PDF fetched on 2026-09-07, and the complete PDF matched the recorded SHA-256.
What this card does not prove
It does not independently establish the underlying model capability, safety, comparison, or real-world truth. This is a retrospective single-maintainer source-publication audit.
- Primary source
- IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide
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PDF page 112- Captured
- 2026-09-07
- Source SHA-256
48d5955ade446845aa50cea973886c0c12c3a16a10c6859873e2edbe8d14a717- Reproduction
- Maintainer run only; no independent operator rerun is registered.
Repeat this exact check locally
Download the PDF to a local file, then run the committed verifier. A changed PDF is reported as drift rather than silently accepted.
python scripts/verify_primary_public_claim_group.py artifacts/cb7k_dom073_t07_primary_claims.json --source-file <local-raw-pdf>Exact source quote
If hydrogen is harvested from natural gas, the indirect emissions associated with fuel-cell buses have been estimated to be roughly half those of diesel buses (UCS, 2000).
70. IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide · PDF page 112
Narrow public claim
Methanol fuel-cell buses were compared to 1998 emissions standards and to other internal combustion engine buses (Georgetown, 2000).
What this card proves
The exact quoted statement occurred in the named official PDF fetched on 2026-09-07, and the complete PDF matched the recorded SHA-256.
What this card does not prove
It does not independently establish the underlying model capability, safety, comparison, or real-world truth. This is a retrospective single-maintainer source-publication audit.
- Primary source
- IEA Bus Systems for the Future: Achieving Sustainable Transport Worldwide
- Section locator
PDF page 112- Captured
- 2026-09-07
- Source SHA-256
48d5955ade446845aa50cea973886c0c12c3a16a10c6859873e2edbe8d14a717- Reproduction
- Maintainer run only; no independent operator rerun is registered.
Repeat this exact check locally
Download the PDF to a local file, then run the committed verifier. A changed PDF is reported as drift rather than silently accepted.
python scripts/verify_primary_public_claim_group.py artifacts/cb7k_dom073_t07_primary_claims.json --source-file <local-raw-pdf>Exact source quote
Methanol fuel-cell buses were compared to 1998 emissions standards and to other internal combustion engine buses (Georgetown, 2000).